Strategies in Theme Park Marketing Essay Example for Free

St positiongies in head hitk Marketing Essay part of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong Tel (00 852) 2766 6341 facsimile machine (00 852) 2362 9362 E-mail emailprofessional persontected edu. hk Kevin K. F. Wong, PhD is a Senior Lecturer in Tourism and Manager of the HTM Resource Centre in the Department of Hotel and Tourism Management at the Hong Kong Polytechnic Uni- versity, Hong Kong. His major(ip) research participations focus on tourism management, tourist behaviour, tourism forecasting models and impact studies. Phoebe W. Y. Cheung is a research assistant within the Department of Hotel and Tourism. Management at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. ABSTRACT KEYWORDS THEME PARK, THEMING, LEISURE, MOTIVATION, LIFESTYLE Theme cat valiums aim to create the atmosphere of an early(a) world and it is essentially the prow which becomes the main part of a radix viridity come. Thematic tourism has become increasin gly popular where travel is motivated by an interest in a particular subject or argona rather than by the to a greater extent traditional motivations such as idyllic scenery and climate. The drawing baron of theming is evident in the fact that it has, in recent years, become a catalyst for the growth of refreshed destinations based mainly on thematic leisure.This news report attempts to identify and describe a translucent and representative stupefy of paper types and attri merelyes in a head commonalty and examines the relationship between visitors motivation for tour constitution parks and question orientation courses. Weak to mod- erately hygienic relationships were found between motivation for subject ara park visits by visitors and their demographics and lifestyle patterns. Given the fact the basis park industry is still relatively young in Asia, the ndings of this study reinforce the need for Asian theme parks to focus strategically on satisfy- ing lower- take needs, such as stimulation, by developing and selling an adventure theme compar adapted with Western theme parks.INTRODUCTION The theme park industry has witnessed a fairly rapid international expansion in recent years. In the US, the industry has r each(prenominal)ed maturity after 30 years of growth since the inception of Disneyland in the late 1950s, while in Europe, the industry has spread throughout Western Europe with a large c at one timentration of attractions in Ger some, France, the Benelux countries and the UK. Reports from the Economist Intelligence whole indicate that the worldwide trend of the theme park industry is growing.1The North American theme park industry grew at a compound rate of al just about 3 per cent in attendance over the past decade while Eur- ope has become an attractive venue for corporate investment in theme park development by European consortia and large US corporations. Following Europe is Asia, which has been identied as the worlds next leading inter- national theme park market. In North Asia, rapscallion 319 Journal of Vacation Marketing Volume 5 Number 4 Journal of Vacation Marketing Vol.5 No. 4, 1999, pp. 319332, Henry Stewart Publications, 1356-7667 at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from uniform Europe, the industry has experienced a rapid growth phase spurred on by strong demand, a growth which is expected to continue over the next ten years. 2The num- ber of theme parks has been growing in the Asian region. Since 1991, for example, there pass water been major theme parks authentic in Shengzhen, China, such as the China Folk Culture Villages, Splendid China and the Window of the creation.In Singapore, the Haw Par Villa Dragon World and Tang Dynasty Village were opened in 1991, in addition to its live Sentosa Island which features several theme parks. In cost of visitor attendance, Hong Kongs postmortem examination theme park, sea Park, attracted an annual attendan ce of 4. 1 million in 1996, a growth rate of 22 per cent over the previous year.3 This suggests that the industrys potential is enormous in Asia and at the same time implies that theme park developers be facing increasingly keen competition. However, despite the performance of the industry and the tourism earnings contributed by its strong growth, there is still a lack of informa- tion available on theme parks performance, positioning and development in Asia.4 Theming and theme parks A theme park is an amusement park that has themed attractions, be it food, costumes, entertainment, retail stores and/or rides ac-cording to the internationalist Association of Amusement pose and Attractions (IAAPA). Theme parks are constituteed from other amusement parks in that there is a theme that runs through all or intimately of their attractions. These attractions might be marketed under one general idea or personality, or they could comprise a cluster of different themes at one commutation location.5 The theme, therefore, becomes the main part of the theme park experience. Even though theme parks were usually thought of as having a major theme, most of them in fact contain multi-themes in terms of differ- ent themed areas. Some park managers use themes to increase attendance over a period of time, say, during festivals or picky events. However, even though the term theme whitethorn sometimes be unclear, by reference to the denition used by the IAAPA, the themes identied in this study whitethorn be thought of as(i) the main theme which runs through all or most of the attractions, such as the photograph theme of the Warner Brothers flick World (ii) the sub-themes which are found in a park in the form of different themed areas like the Frontierland, Adven- tureland, ideateland, Disco genuinelyland and the Main Street USA of Disneys Magic King- dom and (iii) the transitional themes, that is, themes that are created for special events which only last for a certain peri od of time to boost attendance.Some examples are the Far West fiesta and Space Festival as seen in Disneyland Paris in 1994 and 1995 respec- tively. Theme parks are becoming increas- ingly attractive to the tourist who has trammel vacation time, as by their very nature, they provide a condensed holiday product. 6A good example is Disneys new Animal Kingdom in Florida which replicates a safari park in East Africa. Theme parks aim to create the atmosphere of a nonher world7and it is essentially the theme itself that creates such an atmosphere.A theme represents a story line or simulation which highlights a particular attraction at a destination. 8It at- tempts to tell a story and through this story the visitor is transported to another place and a alone(p) experience is created. However, since theme parks are still a relatively new concept in tourist attractions,9there is a paucity of literature on success and failure of theme parks around the world. Past studies fill focused pri marily on theme park selection,10 visitor behaviour,11 visitor seg- mentation12 etc but not on the intrinsic value of the theme park ? the theme itself. Competitive theming Recent years have seen the emergence of many themes, only limited by imagination.For example, there have been themes that were based on the success of a product, such as Legoland in Denmark, and others that were built on the mythology of a fadure like the Haw Par Villa Dragon World in Singa- pore. The more successful parks have been Page 320 Strategic theming in theme park marketing at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from able to use the theme to create a competitive payoff over the others. Theming promotes the creation of a whole new atmosphere based on the unique experience that a theme park offers.For instance, in all the Disney properties, there is a fantasy element that allows guests to move the urban setting and go to places they dream about. 13 Thematic tour ism, in fact, represents tourism with a relatively narrow focus, where trips are motivated by an interest in a particular subject or area rather than the more traditional motivations such as the lure of idyllic scenery and winning climate. More importantly, theming in some ways is di- vorced from the idea of place, relegating the amity of location to being the back- ground for a theme, rather than being the primary motive factor. 14.There are a number of advantages in theming. First of all, theming is important for creating an initial perception of quality. 15 Secondly, themes are means to be used to attend boost attendance. For example, themed discount programmes are created to aim at certain market segments. 16 They are potential to encourage duplicate visitation, as a themed environs provides a unique, memorable experience which increases the probability that guests pass on re circle. Visitors will tell friends about their visits, provid- ing effective word-of-mouth advert ising. 17 Thirdly, theming is a value-adding factor. The themed retail park Knotts Camp. nosy demonstrated that the mall with a themed entertainment experience will be superior to the mall without such oppor- tunity. 18 Fourthly, theming allows coordina- tion of retail merchandise, which can in turn increase the guests retail expenditure. 19 Fi- nally, theme parks that use an easily recogni- sable and interesting theme will have a competitive advantage over those which do not. 20 This is especially so when there is very strong competition and the equipment is very similar ? the way to differentiate is by theming.21 In addition, as the industry ma- tures and visitors become more experienced and discerning, theming whitethorn be needed for a more sophisticated market. The power of theming or thematic tour- ism is evident in the fact that it has, in recent years, become a catalyst for the growth of new destinations based solely on thematic leisure. 22 Theme park developers have con- ve rted existing attractions into theme parks. To be more competitive and recover the loss of market share or prot, developers have to diversify their product offering. For exam- ple, there has been the growth in demand for attractions with a space theme.There- fore, knowing what themes guests look for is essential to both potential and existing theme park investors. New types of theme parks are being developed around the world which shift their focus away from the conventional features of a Disneyland type attraction and pull ahead differentiate themselves. This is evi- denced a plan to develop a theme park at the site of the 1969 Woodstock music festival to bring its counter-culture spirit and an- other based on crocodiles in Florida, named Jungle Crocs of the World. 23 Purpose of study The purpose of the study is to examine the grandness of the theme in the marketing of theme parks.Since the theme is an important factor affecting the choice of theme parks by visitors, it is import ant to underwrite more accurately what visitors preferences are in terms of themes and how their demographic characteristics and lifestyle in? uence such preference.More specically, this study seeks to identify and describe a distinct but representative set of theme types and attri- butes in a theme park to nd out the theme preference(s) of the theme park visitors to examine the relationship between theme park visitors motivation (purpose of visit), demographics, psychographics (lifestyle) and their preference(s) for themes and to exam- ine the importance of theming in the mar- keting of theme parks.Motivation for visiting theme parks Pearce and Dermotts leisure ladder provides a motivation framework to explain why people visit theme parks. 24 Five levels of need regarding theme park visitation are Page 321 Wong and Cheung at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from identied, with the highest level of need being listed as fullment, followed by the need for self-esteem and development. The next level is relationship, which emphasises the need to build and extend ones personal relationships.This is followed by the need for stimulation. pile in this group are concerned with the management of their arousal levels with emphasis on fun and thrill rides. The lowest level is that of relaxation or corporal needs (see Appendix). Apart from understanding the basic moti- vation for theme park visitation, it is neces- sary to nd out why one theme park is chosen over another. The theme here plays a role in differentiating the more successful parks from the less successful ones. It has a twofold signicance. First, the nature of the theme chosen will have an impact on the type of customers attracted to the park. Some themes may have a broad and general appeal which caters to a wide spectrum of visitors while others may be more focused and have a narrower appeal.Secondly, them- ing allows the creation of an enhanced atmo- sphere and guest experience. These effects, in fact, create the appropriately desirable image life-or-death to services marketing. Service marketing The theme park industry is part of the service component of the tourism industry. Owing to the intangible nature of services, the creation of an identiable image is critical for service marketing. Even though the image and the theme are not identical in nature, the theme helps project an image by the sort of theme chosen and the them- ing.For example, the fantasy theme of Disneyland helps project its image of de- light, fun and fantasy. Further, the extensive theming of Disney gives a perception of high quality. The decision made by a consumer to purchase a product or service is directly in- ?uenced by the image the individual has of himself/herself and the perceived image of the product or seller. This may explain the psychological process involved when a visi- tor chooses to go to a theme park with a particular theme, say, an adventure theme h e views himself as adventurous.It can be postulated that the psychographics of consu- mers help predict the sort of theme they prefer. Moreover, the service nature of theme parks make image creation a difcult task as it is intrinsically abstract. Thus, service mar- keters may be able to build the image of specic reality and differentiate it from other realities by the notification of tangible evidences and experiences simulating reality. By promoting a theme, customers can then use these created physical facilities and props to judge service quality. For example, them- ing is often done with the careful choice of types of architecture, costumes and other settings displayed in the park.Theme preference In a study by McClung it was found that the type of theme is one of the factors affecting tourists preference for theme parks. 25 Results also indicate that there is a correlation be- tween themes and attractions so that consid- erable multi-segmentation strategies can be devised to c ater to different market seg- ments. For example, wet and wild themes correlate highly with family attractions. This type of theme can be used to attract junior people and families with children looking for thrills and excitement. Moreover, research has revealed that inter- national tourists with different cultural backgrounds exhibit distinct patterns of preference when they travel.Caucasians were found to be different from Asian visitors in terms of preference for theme park attributes concerning the nature of the attraction, activ- ities and themes. 26 Furthermore, the impor- tance of the cultural element in planning and designing theme parks has been emphasised by Gorder, who stressed the need to seek an appropriate philosophy of concept that re- ?ected Eastern thought and traditions for a park located in the Orient. 27 These important differences point to the need for more theme park studies to provide data for theme park developers give to international tourists from diverse cultural backgrounds. Page 322.Strategic theming in theme park marketing at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from METHODOLOGY Theme types and attributes A detailed review of tourism and theme park literature and promotion brochures was con- ducted to nd out the theme attributes of theme parks. Words used to describe the theme or general atmosphere associated with the theme parks that appeared more than once were recorded. A list of descriptions was generated by a review of promotional literature, and was expanded by conducting interviews with ve experienced theme park professionals who were asked to list all the theme types used by theme parks around the world based on their experience and know- ledge.Specic theme attributes were derived and content analysis was used to sort out the adjectives used. Obvious duplication and overgeneralised descriptors were eliminated and a list of 75 attributes was compiled. As the list contained many des criptors that were similar to each other, the latter were reduced to a smaller number and regrouped into attributes that were more likely to re- present one single theme. Content analysis was to distinguish different theme types and, after regrouping, the resulting attributes were programmeied into seven main ones.These theme types were then shown to the ve volunteers who had past experience in theme park settings to obtain further feed- back for nalising the grouping of theme types. tabularize 1 shows the nal grouping into seven theme types used in this study. Motivation for theme park visitation To ascertain the motivation for theme park visiting, ten statements were constructed, based on Pearce and Dermotts leisure ladder for theme park settings, each stating visitors different reasons for visiting to theme parks. Table 1 Theme types grouping Type Attribute Type Attribute Adventure Excitement and action Fantasy Animation.Frightening Cartoon characters Mysterious childishness e nchantment Thrill rides Childrens play park Futurism Advances in society and technology Fairy tale Magic Discovery Make believe Exploration of acquisition and technology History and culture Myths and legends Aboriginal Laser Authentic Robot Cultural heritage Scientic Ethnic appeals Science ction Gold Rush International Flavours of the world Historic ambience International village Movie American Wild West show Miniature replicas Comedy Scenic spots apparent movement picture World expositions Show business Nature Animals Stunt show Floral displays Horticultural gardens Landscaping.Marine life Natural wonders marine Wildlife Page 323 Wong and Cheung at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from These were in the form of questions which represented the ve levels of the leisure ladder model as shown in the Appendix. Psychographic (lifestyle) Twelve statements pertaining to the person- ality, behaviour and interests of the respon- dents, such as I am a dreamer and like to fantasise I am adventurous and look for excite- ment in life etc, were developed to investigate their preferences for particular themes.These statements were developed based on past literature and comments from a group of ve volunteers. Demographic variables Demographic variables such as gender, country of origin, age, life cycle, railway line and post, household income and fosterage level were selected to test whether any of them had a relationship with visitors theme preferences. Data collection An undisguised structured questionnaire was designed to nd out information pertaining to visitors demographics, psychographics and their preferences for themes.It consisted of ve classs, with the rst section consist- ing of questions relating to general travel behaviour, such as frequency of travel and number of theme parks visited. In the second section, respondents were asked to indicate the degree of importance of each of the seven themes, with 1 being very unimpor- tant and 5 being very important. Following this, they were asked to rank their prefer- ences for these themes, with 1 being the most preferred and 7 the least(prenominal) preferred, as an indication of their ordinal partiality.The third section of the questionnaire, which sought to reveal the respondents lifestyle patterns (attitude, interest, behaviour) was achieved by seeking their level of agreement with a series of statements which colligate to these aspects on a casing which ranged from 1 to 5, with 1 indicating strong disagreement and 5 indicating strong agreement. The fourth section focused on the motivation for theme park visitation. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement with ten statements which related to the ve levels of Pearce and Dermotts leisure ladder model for theme park settings.The nal section gathered general demographic data on respondents gender, country of origin, age, marital status, occupation, household income and education level. The survey questionnaire was pre-tested on a small group of ten volunteers to ascer-tain the validity, clarity and appropriateness of the questions asked, curiously in the sections pertaining to motivation and life- style patterns.Based on the comments re- ceived, some rewording was considered and the layout of the questionnaire restructured. The sample in this study were Asians (not necessarily international tourists) in Hong Kong who had visited a theme park before and those who had not visited one but ex- pressed an intention to visit. The survey was conducted in a popular tourist shopping area in Kowloon, Hong Kong on a weekend to obtain a good cross-section of people.Re-spondents were randomly intercepted and requested to complete the survey question- naire. Interviewers were instructed to clarify to respondents the denition of a theme park where necessary and give examples. FINDINGS Demographic prole of respondents The basic prole of respondents showed a mix of men (4 4 per cent) and women (56 per cent) across all age and income categories. The volume (52 per cent) of them were between 25 and 39 years of age and single. In terms of income group, slightly more than one-third reported middle to upper middle class incomes.This may be explained by the fact that 44 per cent of the respondents were white-collar workers and 39 per cent re- ported having attained a secondary education level. In terms of respondents nationality, most of them were from Hong Kong, with the rest originating from the Philippines, China, Korea, India, Japan and Singapore. Page 324 Strategic theming in theme park marketing at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from Visitation pattern Of the one hundred five respondents who provided usable data for this study, 95. 2 per cent have been to a theme park before while 4. 8 per cent have not.About one-third (32 per cent) of the respondents may be considered as non-frequent theme park visit ors as they visited theme parks only once every two to four years. some other 30 per cent visited theme parks once a year whereas 22 per cent visited troika times or more a year and once every six months. In terms of the number of theme parks they had visited, the majority of the respondents (46 per cent) had been to be- tween one and two different theme parks while 33 per cent of them had visited be- tween three and ve theme parks. About 12 per cent had been to six to nine parks whereas only 9 per cent had been to ten or more different ones.The pattern of visitation may be attributed to the fact that there is a relatively small number of theme parks exist- ing in Asia. Ocean Park in Hong Kong was found to be the most visited park by those respondents who had been to theme parks before (97 per cent) followed by Disneys Magic Kingdom (30 per cent). Table 2 shows the list of theme parks visited by the respondents. Theme preference of respondents Seven theme types were examined to de ter- mine which theme was most preferred by respondents.The nature theme (66. 7 per cent) was most frequently ranked among the higher ranks (ranks 13), followed by the fantasy theme (46. 7%) and adventure theme (44. 8%). Futurism (44. 7%), chronicle and cul-ture (37. 1%), and international (32. 4%) themes came fourth, fth and sixth respec- tively. The least preferred theme was the movie theme with only 27. 7% of respondents ranking in the top three ranks (see Table 3). To some extent the overwhelming prefer- ence for the nature theme may be explained by the limited theme park experience of some respondents.Ocean Park, an oceanarium (nature) type of park, was found to be the most visited park (97%) and almost half of these respondents have only visited one or two different parks. Thach and Axinn noted that consumers with a greater depth of ex- perience in one park only may be more likely to use the park they are familiar with as the standard for the industry and their expecta- tions of other parks are shaped by this limited knowledge.28 Hence, the preference for the nature theme may very likely be a re? ection of the in-depth experience obtained at Ocean Park as 70 per cent of the companys guests were in fact on a repeat visit. On the other hand, the movie theme, a popular theme found in the West with the success of Universal Studios and Warner Brothers Movie World, was the least pre- ferred theme.This points to the need for the consideration of cultural in? uence on theme Table 2 Major theme parks visited by respondents Theme Park % Ocean Park 97 Disneys Magic Kingdom 30 Sung Dynasty Village 29 China Folk and Culture Village 29 Splendid China 24 Sentosa Island 17 The Window of the World 16 Haw Par Villa Dragon World 15 Warner Bros Movie World 11 Jurong Bird Park 10 anglerfish World 10 Sea World 9 Dream World 8 Universal Studios 6 (n ? 100) Table 3Theme preferences of respondents by frequency of higher ranking Theme % Rank Nature 66. 7 1 Fantasy 46. 7 2 Adven ture 44. 8 3 Futurism 44. 7 4 History and culture 37. 1 5 International 32. 4 6 Movie 27. 7 7 Page 325 Wong and Cheung at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm.sagepub. comDownloaded from preferences.Another interpretation may be that as the breadth of experience in terms of the number of different parks visited was limited, the respondents in this study did not have much exposure to the movie theme. For example, only 11 per cent and 6 per cent of the respondents have been to Warner Brothers Movie World and Universal Stu- dios respectively. Demographics and themes A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to test the relationship between the demographic variables and visitors preferences for themes.The results are as follows. ? The results of the ANOVA revealed that visitors preferences for the adventure theme was abnormal by their marital status, with those being single viewing a higher preference for this theme (mean ? 384) as shown in Table 4. ? The importanc e of the fantasy theme was also found to be affected by marital status. Those who were single preferred the theme, with a relatively high mean of 3. 51 in contrast to those who were mar- ried with no children (mean ? 230). Table 4 presents these results. ? Younger groups of respondents did not consider the history and culture theme important (mean ? 288) compared to those in the age group of 4054 years (mean ? 407).Students also reported a lower mean (mean ? 263) towards this theme whereas the working-class workers and the middle-income group (HK $10,000$30,000) regarded it as impor- tant. These results are presented in Tables 5, 6 and 7 below. ? The importance of the movie theme differed signicantly by respondents age, marital status and occupation. Those aged between 10 and 24 years (mean ? 346), being single (mean ? 340) and students (mean ? 363) preferred the movie theme (Tables 4, 5 and 6). These results are consistent with the ndings in an earlier study by Pearce and Dermott pertaining to the matching of demographic groups (young children, single adults and families) with the motivations for theme park visitors.The 1316 year olds and the solos representing the single group viewed the rides or thrills as more important than did the family groups. Given that age and marital status are sensibly related it is not surpris- ing that respondents who are single would prefer the fantasy theme which has attributes like childhood enchantment, childrens play park, cartoon characters etc. This probably also explains why other groups such as those Table 4 Comparison of the importance of the theme to respondents by marital status Theme importance Group 1 (Single) Group 2 (Married, no child) Group 3 (Married, children at home) Group 4 (Married, children left home).ANOVA Main effect probability Adventure 3. 84 3. 10 3. 03 3. 00 . 0092A Fantasy 3. 51 2. 30 3. 26 3. 20 . 0213A Futurism 3. 49 3. 60 3. 71 2. 60 . 2191 History and culture 3. 40 3. 70 3. 65 4. 20 . 3598 Inte rnational 3. 40 3. 30 3. 35 3. 80 . 7696 Movie 3. 40 3. 10 2. 68 3. 36 . 0271A Nature 3. 95 3. 90 3. 85 4. 20 . 9127 Results are presented as the mean, on a 5-point scale where 1 indicated the theme was very unimportant and 5 indicated the theme was very important. ADenotes signicance at the .05 level. Page 326 Strategic theming in theme park marketing at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from married with children who stay with parents and married with children who do not stay with parents, with the excommunication of empty nesters (married with no child), tend to prefer the fantasy theme. This may be attrib- uted to the fact that families with children may be more desirous of seeking entertain- ment opportunities for their children. As for the movie theme, it was found that the preference for this theme was in? uenced by several related demographic variables.Younger people, who are more likely to be single and are students, preferred go ing to cinemas to spend their leisure time. It seemed that the more movies they saw, the higher the probability the movie theme would be attractive to them. However, it should be noted that the number of movies watched does not necessarily correlate with the importance given the movie theme (coefficient ? 1246, p ? 210). Likewise, the educational nature contained in the his- tory and culture theme was less appealing to the younger group who are usually students, and tend to perceive history and culture as less stimulating.This study also revealed that the blue- collar section showed a preference for the history and culture theme. While the basic motivation for travel may be to achieve a more profound appreciation of society and culture,29 blue-collar workers who earn a Table 5 Comparison of the importance of the theme to respondents by age Theme importance Group 1 (1024) Group 2 (2539) Group 3 (4054) Group 4 (5565? ) ANOVA Main effect probability Adventure 3. 92 3. 50 2. 86 3. 36 . 0587 Fantasy 3. 58 3. 25 2. 93 3. 36 . 3889 Futurism 3. 29 3. 67 3. 57 3. 27 . 4619 History and culture 2. 88 3. 65 4. 07 3. 82 . 0029A International 3.29 3. 36 3. 36 3. 82 . 4406 Movie 3. 46 3. 05 2. 50 3. 10 . 0371A Nature 3. 79 3. 93 4. 07 4. 00 . 8699 Results are presented as the mean, on a 5-point scale where 1 indicated the theme was very unimportant and 5 indicated the theme was very important. ADenotes signicance at the . 05 level. Table 6 Comparison of the importance of the theme to respondents by occupation and post Theme importance Group 1 (Business owner/self- employed/manager/ white collar) Group 2 (Blue collar) Group 3 (Student) Group 4 (Housewife/ retired/ unemployed) ANOVA Main effect probability Adventure 3. 52 3. 56 3. 69 3. 13 . 5597 Fantasy 3.41 2. 81 3. 38 3. 31 . 3273 Futurism 3. 55 3. 75 3. 13 3. 63 . 4156 History and culture 3. 59 4. 00 2. 63 3. 88 . 0009 A International 3. 27 3. 75 3. 25 3. 63 . 1819 Movie 2. 84 3. 19 3. 63 3. 50 . 0271A Nature 3. 89 4. 19 3 . 88 3. 81 . 7355 Results are presented as the mean, on a 5-point scale where 1 indicated the theme was very unimportant and 5 indicated the theme was very important. ADenotes signicance at the . 05 level. Page 327 Wong and Cheung at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from low to middle household income have lim- ited travelling opportunities and, therefore.